ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

MAINLY THE STUDY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS IS CALLED ORGANIC CHEMISTRY,BECAUSE ALL LIVING ORGANISM DEPEND ON CARBON COMPOUNDS FOR THEIR EXISTANCE.TODAY, CHEMISTS CAN ALSO CREAT SYNTHETIC CARBON COMPOUNDS.NATURAL & SYNTHETHIC COMPOUNDS OCCUR IN A WIDE RANGE OF MATERIALS, SUCH AS FOOD,FUEL,PAINT,TEXTILES AND PLASTICS.

THERE ARE MAINLY TWO KINDS OF ORGANIC CHEMICALS.THEY ARE DESCRIBED BELLOW-

1. ALIPHATICS-

ORGANIC CHEMICALS CONTAINING A CHAIN OF CARBON ATOMS LINKED BY SINGLE,DOUBLE OR TRIPLE BONDS ARE CALLED ALIPHATICS.THE ELIPHATIC ETHANE OCCURS IN NATURAL GAS, AND ETHENE IS USED TO MAKE PLASTICS.

2. AROMATICS-

THE STRONG-SMELLING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CALLED AROMATICS CONTAIN A RING OF SIX CARBON ATOMS.BENZEN, THE SIMPLEST AROMATIC,IS A COLOURLESS LIQUID OBTAINED FROM COAL,NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM.AROMATICS ARE USED TO MAKE VIVID DYES CALLED ANILINES.

FATS & OILS-

LIQUID VEGETABLE OIL IS AN UNSATURATED FAT- A TYPE OF FAT IN WHICH SOME OF THE CARBON ATOMS ARE LINKED BY DOUBLE BONDS..WHEN THE OIL REACTS WITH HYDROGEN,THE DOUBLE BONDS BREAK AND THE CARBON ATOMS LINK UP WITH EXTRA HYDROGEN ATOMS,FORMING A SOLID FAT SUCH AS MARGARINE.SOLID FATS CONTAIN ONLY SINGLE BONDS BETWEEN THEIR CARBON ATOMS.THESE FATS ARE SAID TO BE SATURATED BECAUSE THEY CANNOT BOND WITH MORE HYDROGEN ATOMS.

POLYMERS-

POLYMERS ARE GIANT MOLECULES THAT CONSISTS OF WINDING CHAINS OF THOUSANDS OF SMALL ORGANIC MOLECULES CALLED MONOMERS.FATS,STARCHES,PLASTICS AND ARTIFICIAL FIBERS ARE MADE OF MANY ETHENE MONOMERS JOINED TOGETHER.

GEOCHEMISTRY

THE EARTH’S COMPOSITION AND THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF ROCKS ARE STUDIED IN GEOCHEMISTRY.THE FINDINGS OF GEOCHEMISTS GIVE US A GREATER KNOWLEDGE OF THE EARTH’S HISTORY AND HELP US TO FIND ORES, MINERALS, AND OTHER RESOURCES.

BIOCHEMISTRY

THE STUDY OF THE CHEMISTRY OF LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES, SUCH AS RESPIRATION,THAT TAKE PLACE WITHIN THEM IS CALLED BIOCHEMISTRY.THE DISCOVERIES OF BIOCHEMISTS ARE USED IN INDUSTRY, MEDICINE, AND AGRICULTURE

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

THE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRICITY AND CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IS CALLED ELECTROCHEMISTRY.MANY COMPOUNDS CONSIST OF ELECTRICALLY CHARGED PARTICLES CALLED IONS WHICH FORM WHEN ATOMS LOSE OR GAIN ELECTRONS.A BATTERY USES A CHEMICAL REACTION TO GENERATE AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IS ONE OF THE LARGEST AND THE MOST IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD.IT INVOLVES TAKING NEW MATERIALS-SUCH AS AIR,OIL,WATER,COAL,METAL ORES,LIMESTONE AND PLANTS- AND USING CHEMICAL REACTIONS TO CHANGE THEM INTO USEFUL PRODUCTS.THESE INCLUDE FOOD,CLOTHING,MEDICINE,PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS,PAINTS AND DYES,SOAPS AND DETERGENTS,PLASTICS AND GLASSWARE

CATALYSTS

COMPOUNDS CALLED CATALYSTS SPEED UP A CHEMICAL REACTION BY HELPING SUBSTANCES REACT TOGETHER.THE CATALYSTS ARE LEFT UNCHANGED BY THE REACTION.MANY CARS ARE FITTED WITH A CATALYTIC CONVERTER TO REMOVE POLLUTING GASES FROM ENGINE FUMES.THE CONVERTER FORCES THE GASES INTO CLOSE CONTACT WITH CATALYSTS.THE CATALYSTS MAKE THE GASES REACT RAPIDLY WITH EACH OTHER,PRODUCING LESS HARMFUL GASES THAT ESCAPE OUT OF THE EXHAUST PIPE.

RATES OF REACTIONS

REACTIONS CAN BE SPEEDED UP BY MAKING THE REACTING PARTICLES COME INTO CONTACT WITHH EACH OTHER MORE OFTEN.ONE WAY OF DOING THIS IS BY INCREASING A REACTANT'S SURFACE AREA.SULPHURIC ACID REACTS MORE RAPIDLY WITH CHALK PIECES,BECAUSE THE POWDER HAS A GRATER SURFACE AREA.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

DURING CHEMICAL REACTION,SUBSTANCES CALLED REACTANTS BREAK APART & NEW SUBSTANCES CALLED PRODUCTS FORM.ENERGY IS TAKEN INTO BREAK THE BONDS BETWEEN THE REACTANTS ATOMS.AS THE ATOMS LINK UP AGAIN IN DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS TO MAKE THE PRODUCTS, NEW BONDS FORM THE ENERGY IS GIVEN OUT.

THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF REACTIONS.THEY ARE DESCRIBED BELLOW-

1. EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS-

IN AN EXOTHERMIC REACTION,SUCH AS BURNING,MORE ENERGY IS GIVEN OUT THAN IS TAKEN IN FROM THE SURROUNDINGS.

2. ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS-

MOST OF THE REACTIONS THAT OCCUR IN COOKING ARE ENDOTHERMIC,WHICH MEANS THAT MORE ENERGY IS TAKEN IN THAN IS GIVEN OUT.

3. OXIDATION & REDUCTION-

WHEN IRON RUSTS, A REACTION OCCUR BETWEEN THE IRON & OXYGEN IN THE AIR.THE IRON GAINS OXYGEN, AND AN ORANGE-BROWN COMPOUND CALLED IRON OXIDE FORMS.A REACTION IN WHICH A SUBSTANCE GAINS OXYGEN IS CALLED OXIDATION.WHEN OXIDATION OCCURS, THERE IS A SIMULTANIOUS REACTION CALLED REDUCTION, IN WHICH A SUBSTANCE LOSES OXYGEN.WHEN IRON OXIDIZES, THE AIR IS REDUCED AS IT LOSES OXYGEN TO IRON.

4. REVERSIBLE REACTIONS-

MANY CHEMICAL REACTIONS PERMANENTLY CHANGE THE REACTANTS, BUT REVERSIBLE REACTIONS CAN GO BOTH FORWARDS AND BACKWARDS.FOR EXAMPLE WHEN NITROGEN DIOXIDE IS HEATED, IT BREAKS DOWN INTO NITROGEN MONOXIDE AND OXYGEN.COOLING THIS MIXTURE MAKES THE TWO GASES REACT TO FORM NITROGEN DIOXIDE AGAIN.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

SCIENTISTS WRITE CHEMICAL EQUATIONS TO DESCRIBE WHAT HAPPENS DURING A CHEMICAL REACTION.IT TELLS EXACTLY WHATS HAPPENING IN A REACTION.FOR EXAMPLE- WHEN TWO ATOM OF HYDROGEN AND ONE ATOM OF OXYGEN ARE BONDED TOGETHER THROUGH A REACTION THEN WATER IS CREATED.AS A MATTER AFFECT THIS BOND CAN NOT CREATED WITHOUT A CHEMICAL REACTION.HOWEVER,THIS CHEMICAL REACTION CAN BE DESCRIBED BY THE EQUATION BELLOW-

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

CHEMICAL CHANGE

WHEN A PILE AMMONIUM DICHROMATE CRYSTALS IS HEATED BY A FLAME,A CHEMICAL REACTION OCCURS.HEAT,LIGHT AND GASES ARE GIVEN OFF AND MOUND OF GRAY-GREEN ASH IS LEFT BEHIND.THE ASH NOT ONLY LOOK DIFFERENT FROM THE CRYSTALS,BUT IT ALSO HAS A DIFFERENT CHEMICAL BOND OR MAKE UP.IT HAS CHANGED INTO THE SUBSTANCE CHROMIUM OXIDE.

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

CHEMISTRY IS THE BRANCH OF SCIENCE THAT STUDIES THE STRUCTURE OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.IT ALSO INVESTIGATES HOW THEY CHANGE AND INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER DURING PROCESSES CALLED CHEMICAL REACTIONS.THERE IS MORE TO CHEMISTRY THAN MESSY EXPERIMENTS IN LABORATORIES.DOCTORS USE IT TO FIGHT DISEASES,CHEFS USE IT TO COOK FOOD,AND FARMERS USE IT TO INCREASES THE GROWTH OF THEIR CROPS.

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

PHYSICS EXAMINES THE BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER AND ENERGY,WHICH,TOGETHER WITH EMPTY SPACE,MAKE UP THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE.FOR THIS REASON, THE THEORIES AND METHODS OF PHYSICS CAN BE USED IN ANY AREA OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY. BIOPHYSICS - A BIOPHYSICIST STUDIES THE PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN LIVING THINGS AND THE WAY THEY RESPOND STIMULI SUCH HEART AND LIGHT.ELECTRON MICROSCOPES ALLOW BIOPHYSICISTS TO SEE OBJECTS TOO TINY FOR EVEN OPTICAL TELESCOPES TO DETECT. MEDICAL PHYSICS - USING THE METHODS OF PHYSICS TO HELP DIAGNOSE AND TREAT ILLNESS IS CALLED MEDICAL PHYSICS.ONE OF THE BEST KNOWN TOOLS OF THE MEDICAL PHYSICIST IS THE CAT SCANNER,WHICH USES X-RAYS TO GIVE 3-D IMAGES OF BODY ORGANS AND TISSUES. PARTICLE PHYSICS - MATTER IS MADE UP OF MORE THAN 200 PARTICLE,INCLUDING ELECTRONS,PROTONS AND QUARKS.MACHINES CALLED BUBBLE CHAMBERS AND PARTICLE ACCELERATORS ALLOW PHYSICISTS TO STUDY THESE TINY PARTICLES AND DISCOVER NEW ONES. GEOPHYSICS - A GEOPHYSICIST STUDIES THE PHYSICAL PROCESS THAT TAKE PLACE ON AND WITHIN THE EARTH,INCLUDING ROCK FORMATION,THE EARTHS MAGNETISM,AND VOLCANOES.DEVICES CALLED SEISMOGRAPH HELP GEOPHYSICISTS TO RECORD AND EARTHQUAKES. ASTROPHYSICS - THE STUDY OF THE PLANETS,STARS AND GALAXIES THAT MAKE UP THE UNIVERSE IS CALLED ASTROPHYSICS.IT MAKES USE OF DATA COLLECTED BY TELESCOPE.COSMOLOGY IS THE PART OF ASTROPHYSICS THAT ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN HOW THE UNIVERSE BEGAN.

PHYSICAL CHANGES

MATTER MAY UNDERGO A PHYSICAL CHANGE IF IT GAINS OR LOOSES ENERGY AN ICE LOLLY MELTS IN THE SUN BECAUSE IT GAINS HEAT ENERGY.PHYSICAL CHANGES CAN BE REVERSED.THE QUESTION IS HOW?THE ICE LOLLY CAN BE COOLED IN FREEZER,UNTIL IT RE FREEZES.

MODERN PHYSICS

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION,NUCLEAR REACTIONS,CHAOS,TIME AND SPACE,RELATIVITY ARE ALL STUDIED IN MODERN PHYSICS.CHAOS TRIES TO UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEX SYSTEMS,SUCH THE WEATHER,WHERE BEHAVIOUR SEEMS TO BE UNPREDICTABLE.CHAOS CAN BE USED TO GENERATE COMPLEX COMPUTERIZED IMAGES CALLED FRACTALS.

CLASSICAL PHYSICS

BEFORE THE 20th CENTURY,PHYSICS WAS ONLY LIMITED TO ELECTRICITY,MAGNETISM,FORCE AND MOTION,AND LIGHTS AND WAVES.THE ACCURATE THEORIES OF THAT TIME ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED CLASSICAL PHYSICS.CLASSICAL PHYSICS BEGAN IN THE 16th CENTURY WITH THE STUDY OF THE FLIGHT PATHS OF CANNONBALLS.

WHAT IS PHYSICS?

PHYSICS IS CALLED THE MOTHER OF SCIENCE.PHYSICS IS MAINLY THE STUDY OF MATTER AND ENERGY.IT IS A CENTRAL OR GENERAL SCIENCE,BECAUSE IT TRIES TO DISCOVER THE BASIC LAWS THAT EXPLAINS HOW THE UNIVERSE WORKS.IT CAN BE USED TO EXPLAIN CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY,ASTRONOMY,BIOLOGY,OR ANY OTHER SCIENCE.

SCIENCE PROJECT 2

LAVA LAMP WITHOUT LIGHT - MATERIALS - 1/2 CUP WATER, CLEAR JAR OR DRINKING GLASS WHICH ENOUGH TI HOLD ABOUT A CU OF LIQUID,1/2 CUP VEGETABLE OIL,1/3 CUP WATER,4 OR 5 TABLESPOONS SALT. INSTRUCTIONS - 1.POUR THE WATER INTO THE JAR. 2.ADD THE VEGETABLE OIL AND RECORD WHAT HAPPEN TO THE LIQUIDS INSIDE THE JAR. 3.WHEN YOU SPRINKLE THE SALT INTO THE JAR,CLEAR BLOBS OF OIL FALL TO THE BOTTOM OF THE JAR AND THEN SLOWLY COMES UP. WHAT'S HAPPENING - WHEN YOU POUR THE OIL OVER THE WATER,THE OIL FLOATS ON TOP BECAUSE IT IS LESS DENSE THEN WATER.DENSITY ALONE DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE TWO DISTINCT LAYERS.WATER AND OIL ARE IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS-THEY DO NOT MIX INTO SOLUTION.NO MATTER HOW MUCH YOU SHAKE THE JAR,AFTER A WHILE,THE OIL AND TE WATER LAYERS WILL SEPARTE.WHEN YOU SPRINKLE THE SALT OVER THE LAYER OF OIL,AT FIRST IT MAY SEEM TO FLOAT ON THE OIL.BUT THE GRAINS OF SALT ARE HEAVY,AND EVENTUALLY THEY FALL TO THE BOTTOM OF THE JAR.WHEN THEY FALL,THEY MAY TAKE A BLOB OF OIL DOWN TOO.YOU MIGHT NOTICE THAT THE OIL BLOBS SITTING AT THE BOTTOM OF THE LAYER HAVE A GRAINY COATING OF SALT.THIS SALT COATING IS STUCK TO THE OIL BLOB AND ANCHORS IT DOWN.SALT DISSOLVES IN WATER,AND EVENTUALLY THE SALT COATING OF THE OIL BLOB DISAPPEARS.AT THAT POINT,THE OIL BLOBS NO LONGER WEIGHTED DOWN,AND FLOATS BACK. TRY YOUR SELF - TRY REPLACING THE SALT WITH OTHER MATERIALS LIKE SUGAR,BAKING SODA,OR DIFFERENT KINDS OF POWDER.WHAT KIND O RESULT DO YOU GET?

SCIENCE PROJECT 1

ELECTRICITY PRODUCING FROM LEMON!!! - MATERIALS - A LEMON,A PENNY OR COPPER METAL,A GALVANIZED NAIL OR ZINC METAL,COPPER WIRE,A FLASHLIGHT BULB. INSTRUCTIONS - 1.ROLL THE LEMON ON A TABLE WITH SOME GENTLE PRESSURE TO MASH UP THE INSIDE OF THE LEMON WITHOUT BREAKING IT. 2.STICK THE PENNY AND THE NAIL INTO THE LEMON,MAKING SURE THAT THEY DO NOT TOUCH. 3.AT THESE POINT,STICK OUT YOUR TONGUE AND TOUCH IT TO THE PENNY AND THE NAIL AT THE SAME TIME. 4.WITH ALLIGATOR CLIPS,ATTACH A PIECE OF COPPER WIRE TO THE PENNY AND ANOTHER PIECE OF COPPER WIRE TO THE NAIL. 5.CAREFULLY TOUCH THE BOTH WIRES TO A SMALL FLASHLIGHT BULB. NOTIFICATIONS - 1.WHEN YOU TOUCH THE YOUR TONGUE TO THE PENNY AND THE NAIL,YOU SHOULD EEL A SMALL TINGLE. 2.WHEN YOU TOUCH THE WIRES TO THE FLASHLIGHT BULB,IT SHOULD LIGHT UP!!! WHAT'S HAPPENING? - AN ELECTRIC CURRENT IS CREATED WHEN ELECTRONS FLOW FROM ONE ELECTRODE TO ANOTHER THROUGH A CONDUCTOR.IN THIS PROJECT,THE PENNY AND THE NAIL BOTH WORKS AS ELECTRODES.THE COPPER WIRE CONNECTING EVERYTHING IS A CONDUCTOR.THE LEMON ACTS TO FINISH THE CIRCUIT WHILE KEEPING THE TWO ELECTRODES APART.ACTUALLY THE JUICE INSIDE THE LEMON ACTS AS THE CONDUCTING FLUID,KNOWN AS THE ELECTROLYTE.WHEN YOU PUT THE CIRCUIT TOGETHER,YOU ACTUALLY START A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH ONE OF THE ELECTRODES LOSES ELECTRONS WHILE THE OTHER ONE GAINS ELECTRONS.THAT MAKES THE CURRENT,WHICH LIGHTS UP THE BULB. TRY YOUR SELF - YOU CAN USE OTHER FRUITS AND VEGETABLES LIKE POTATOES AND ORANGES CAUSE THEY HAVE ACIDS IN THEM.YOU CAN ALSO TRY OTHER FOODS LIKE HARD BOILED EGGS ,BREAD,OR GREEN PEPPERS.SEE IF THEY WORK.

RENAISSANCE SCIENCE

BY THE 15th CENTURY,THE IDEAS OF ANCIENT GREEKS,ALONG WITH THOSE OF THE CHURCH,HAD BECOME DOGMA(REGARDED OF TRUTH)THROUGHOUT EUROPE.DURING THE RENAISSANCE WHICH MEANS REBIRTH,PEOPLE BEGAN TO QUESTION THE DOGMA.THEY ALSO BEGAN TO EXPERIMENT IN A TRULY SCIENTIFIC FASHION.THESE NEW APPROACH TOOK NOTHING FOR GRANTED,AND USED OBSERVATION,EXPERIMENTS,AND ARGUMENT TO DEVELOP THEORIES TO EXPLAIN WHY THINGS HAPPEN.GREAT SCIENTISTS,SUCH AS GALILEO AND NEWTON,DATE FROM THIS PERIOD.EXAMPLE OF RENAISSANCE SCIENCE - SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS - THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS,SUCH AS TELESCOPE,MADE NEW OBSERVATIONS OF THE UNIVERSE POSSIBLE.MANY OF THESE OBSERVATIONS CHALLENGED THE ACCEPTED BUT UNTESTED IDEAS OF THE TIME.PHYSICALS MODELS SUCH AS THE ARMILLARY SPHERE,HELPED TO VISUALIZE AND TEST THE NEW THEORIES,WHICH NOW BEGAN TO REPLACE THE NEW IDEAS. PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA - AFTER THE PRINTING PRESS WAS INVENTED,INFLUENTIAL WORKS,SUCH AS PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA BY NEWTON(PUBLISHED IN 1687)BECAME AVAILABLE IN GREAT NUMBERS,AND HELPED SPREAD THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD.THESE BOOKS SET OUT THE LAWS OF MOTION AND NEWTONS THEORY OF GRAVITY.

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE

IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE,ANCIENT THEORIES PREVAILED ESPECIALLY ARISTOTLE'S IDEA THAT ALL PHENOMENA HAD A DIVINE CAUSE.MONKS KEPT THEIR LOVE OF LEARNING ALIVE BY COPYING ANCIENT SCIENTIFIC TEXTS.THE ISLAMIC WORLD CONSTANTLY ADDED TO THE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE BY DEVELOPING NEW IDEAS IN MATHEMATICS,ASTRONOMY,AND MEDICINE.EXAMPLE - ALCHEMY - MEDIEVAL ALCHEMISTS ,IN THEIR QUEST TO MAKE GOLD AND DISCOVER THE SECRET OF ETERNAL LIFE,DISCOVERED MUCH ABOUT THE PROPERTIES OF METALS AND OTHER SUBSTANCES.THEY DEVELOPED MANY OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT WE USE TODAY IN THE CHEMISTRY LAB. ELEMENTS - ACCORDING TO ANCIENT GREEKS FOUR DIFFERENT SHAPED TYPES OF ATOM MADE UP THE FOUR ELEMENTS-EARTH,FIRE,AIR,WATER-FROM WHICH EVERYTHING ELSE IN THE WORLD WAS MADE.THE WORD "ATOM" COMES FROM THE GREEK "ATOMEIN",MEANING "INVISIBLE".WE KNOW NOW THAT MANY KINDS OF ATOMS EXIST,AND THAT THEY CAN BE DIVIDED.

MODERN SCIENCE

BY THE END OF THE 1800s,MANY SCIENTISTS BELIEVED THAT THEIR EXISTING THEORIES CAN EXPLAIN EVERY THING IN THE WORLD.AROUND1900,SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED THAT OUR GALAXY IS JUST ONE OF MILLIONS OF SIMILAR GALAXIES THAT MAKE UP THE UNIVERSE.THESE AND MANY OTHER EVENTS CAUSED"CLASSICAL|" PHYSICS TO GIVE AWAY TO "MODERN" PHYSICS,CAUSING NEW THEORIES TO ARISE.THE BEST KNOWN THEORIES OF MODERN PHYSICS ARE THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY WHICH WAS DEVELOPED BY ALBERT EINSTEIN,THE GREATEST MIND OF THE CENTURY,AND THE QUANTUM PHYSICS.THOSE TWO THEORIES HAVE INFLUENCED THE WHOLE SCIENTIFIC WORLD.WITHOUT THOSE THEORIES WE COULD NOT HAVE BECOME SO ADVANCE IN SCIENCE TODAY.EXAMPLE OF MODERN SCIENCE - COSMOLOGY - EINSTEIN'S THEORY OF RELATIVITY AND THE INCREASING KNOWLEDGE OF THE UNIVERSE,STARTED TO GIVE POSSIBLE ANSWERS TO THE QUESTION OF HOW TIME AND SPACE ACTUALLY BEGAN. GENETICS - IN THE 1850s AND 1860s,AN AUSTRIAN MONK,GREGOR MENDEL,WORKED OUT THE BASIC LAWS OF GENETICS-THE STUDY OF INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS.IN 1953,SCIENTISTS FINALLY WORKED OUT THE STRUCTURE OF THE DNA(DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)MOLECULE,A CHEMICAL THAT GOVERNS GENETICS,AND THAT IS FOUND IN EVERY CELL OF EVERY LIVING THING. COMPUTER SCIENCE - ADVANCES IN MANY FIELDS OF STUDY,SUCH AS ELECTRONICS AND MATHEMATICS,CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ELECTRONIC COMPUTER.TODAY,NOT ONLY IS COMPUTER SCIENCE IS AN ESTABLISHED AREA OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY IN IT'S OWN RIGHT,BUT COMPUTERS ARE ESSENTIAL TOOLS FOR ALL THE SCIENTISTS. SUBATOMIC PHYSICS - IN 1897,THE ELECTRON BECAME THE FIRST KNOWN PARTICLE SMALLER THAN THE ATOM.HUNDREDS OF OTHER SUBATOMIC PARTICLES WERE DISCOVERED DURING THE COLLISIONS IN HUGE PARTICLE ACCELERATORS,SUCH DISCOVERIES ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO UNDERSTANDING WHAT MATTER IS,BECAUSE ATOMIC PARTICLES ARE IT'S BUILDING BLOCKS. MODERN MEDICINE - THE DEVELOPMENT OF X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY IS JUST ONE OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT HAS ADVANCED MODERN MEDICINE.BODY SCANNING TECHNIQUES,SUCH AS CAT(COMPUTER-AIDED TOMOGRAPHY),ALONG WITH KNOWLEDGE FROM OTHER SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES,HAVE BROUGHT ABOUT BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE BODY AND HAVE PAVED THE WAY FOR NEW TYPES OF SURGERY.

SCIENCE OF NINETEENTH CENTURY

UNDERSTANDING IN ALL THE SCIENCES- FROM THE PHYSICAL TO THE LIFE SCIENCES-DRAMATICALLY ADVANCED IN THE 19th CENTURY,THANKS TO BETTER COMMUNICATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS,AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINANCIAL REWARD.SCIENCE BECAME LESS RELIGIOUS,AND SCIENTISTS STARTED TO LOOK AT THE WORLD AND EVERYTHING IN IT AS A PART OF A HUGE MACHINE,A VIEW THAT HELPED THEM MAKE SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AND UNIFYING DISCOVERIES IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE.EXAMPLES OF NINETEENTH CENTURY SCIENCE- THEORY OF EVOLUTION-FAMOUS SCIENTIST CHARLES DARWIN WHO WAS AN ENGLISHMAN FIRST PROPOSED THAT SPECIES DEVELOP CHARACTERISTICS.HIS OBSERVATIONS LED TO THE CONCLUSION CONTROVERSIAL AT THE TIME-THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE RELATED TO THE APES AND TO THE REST OF THE LIVING WORLD. STEAM POWER-UP TO UNTIL THE 19th CENTURY THE FORCES OF NATURE SUCH AS HEAT,LIGHT,ELECTRICITY,AND MAGNETISM-WERE SEEN AS BEING COMPLETELY UNRELATED.IN FACT,HEAT IS A FORM OF MOTION,AND THE PROOF OF THIS,ALONG WITH THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETISM(MAGNETISM PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY.),LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF ENERGY DURING THE 1840s.THIS CONCEPT WAS FIRST RECOGNIZED BY THE ENGLISH PHYSICIST JAMES JOULE,WHO GAVE HIS NAME TO THE "JOULE"(UNIT OF ENERGY).

ABOUT LABORATORIES

WE OFTEN THINK OF A LABORATORY AS A ROOM FILLED WITH BOTTLES OF CHEMICALS AND DIFFERENT MACHINES.A LABORATORY CAN BE LIKE THAT,BUT ANY SPACE DEVOTED TO EXPERIMENTATION IS A LABORATORY.IN FACT,LABORATORIES HAVE BEEN SET UP IN TENTS,AIRCRAFTS,AND EVEN IN SPACE CRAFTS !!!YOU CAN ALSO BUILD A LABORATORY IN YOUR OWN ROOM,OR YOUR BASEMENT.BUT YOU HAVE TO BE CAREFUL ABOUT THE EXPERIMENTS,OR ELSE THERE MIGHT BE AN ACCIDENT.

EARLY SCIENCE

THERE WERE TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN VERY EARLY CIVILIZATIONS,BUT NO REAL SCIENCE WAS THERE.AFTER c.800 BC,PEOPLE IN WESTERN ASIA LEARNED HOW TO MAKE METAL.AND THIS LED TO A DECLINE IN THE USE OF STONE TOOLS.THE ANCIENT GREEKS WERE A VERY ADVANCE CIVILIZATION.THEY WERE PERHAPS THE FIRST TO USE REASONED ARGUMENT WHEN LOOKING AT THE NATURAL WORLD.FOR THE FIRST TIME PEOPLE DEVELOPED COMPETING THEORIES TO EXPLAIN FAMILIAR PHENOMENA.SOME OF THESE THEORIES,THOUGH UNTRUSTED AT THE TIME,ARE REMARKABLY CLOSE TO MODERN IDEAS.FOR EXAMPLE,THE ATOMIC THEORY,THE IDEA THAT ALL MATTER IS MADE UP OF TINY PARTICLES,OR ATOMS,WAS FIRST CONCEIVED BY DEMOCRITUS IN c.400 BC.

ABOUT SCIENTIFIC METHOD

SCIENTISTS TEST THEIR IDEAS VERY CAREFULLY.IF THE IDEAS PROVE TO BE WRONG,THEY DEVELOP NEW ONES AND TEST THOSE AS WELL.TO FIND OUT WHY A PARTICULAR EVENT HAPPENS,SCIENTISTS FIRST SUGGEST AN EXPLANATION CALLED HYPOTHESIS.HYPOTHESIS IS TESTED BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT SO THAT THE RESULTS EITHER SUPPORT OR REFUSE THE HYPOTHESIS.IF THE RESULTS SUPPORT THE HYPO THESIS,THE SCIENTISTS CAN THEN DEVELOP IT INTO A MORE DETAILED EXPLANATION CALLED A THEORY.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

SCIENCE IS A QUEST FOR TRUE EXPLANATIONS OF HOW THE WORLD WORKS.IN OTHER WORDS SCIENCE MEANS KNOWING THE UNKNOWN.THE PURPOSE OF SCIENCE IS TO FIND EXPLANATIONS FOR THE THINGS THAT HAPPEN IN THE WORLD AROUND US.