CLASSICAL PHYSICS

BEFORE THE 20th CENTURY,PHYSICS WAS ONLY LIMITED TO ELECTRICITY,MAGNETISM,FORCE AND MOTION,AND LIGHTS AND WAVES.THE ACCURATE THEORIES OF THAT TIME ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED CLASSICAL PHYSICS.CLASSICAL PHYSICS BEGAN IN THE 16th CENTURY WITH THE STUDY OF THE FLIGHT PATHS OF CANNONBALLS.

WHAT IS PHYSICS?

PHYSICS IS CALLED THE MOTHER OF SCIENCE.PHYSICS IS MAINLY THE STUDY OF MATTER AND ENERGY.IT IS A CENTRAL OR GENERAL SCIENCE,BECAUSE IT TRIES TO DISCOVER THE BASIC LAWS THAT EXPLAINS HOW THE UNIVERSE WORKS.IT CAN BE USED TO EXPLAIN CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY,ASTRONOMY,BIOLOGY,OR ANY OTHER SCIENCE.

SCIENCE PROJECT 2

LAVA LAMP WITHOUT LIGHT - MATERIALS - 1/2 CUP WATER, CLEAR JAR OR DRINKING GLASS WHICH ENOUGH TI HOLD ABOUT A CU OF LIQUID,1/2 CUP VEGETABLE OIL,1/3 CUP WATER,4 OR 5 TABLESPOONS SALT. INSTRUCTIONS - 1.POUR THE WATER INTO THE JAR. 2.ADD THE VEGETABLE OIL AND RECORD WHAT HAPPEN TO THE LIQUIDS INSIDE THE JAR. 3.WHEN YOU SPRINKLE THE SALT INTO THE JAR,CLEAR BLOBS OF OIL FALL TO THE BOTTOM OF THE JAR AND THEN SLOWLY COMES UP. WHAT'S HAPPENING - WHEN YOU POUR THE OIL OVER THE WATER,THE OIL FLOATS ON TOP BECAUSE IT IS LESS DENSE THEN WATER.DENSITY ALONE DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE TWO DISTINCT LAYERS.WATER AND OIL ARE IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS-THEY DO NOT MIX INTO SOLUTION.NO MATTER HOW MUCH YOU SHAKE THE JAR,AFTER A WHILE,THE OIL AND TE WATER LAYERS WILL SEPARTE.WHEN YOU SPRINKLE THE SALT OVER THE LAYER OF OIL,AT FIRST IT MAY SEEM TO FLOAT ON THE OIL.BUT THE GRAINS OF SALT ARE HEAVY,AND EVENTUALLY THEY FALL TO THE BOTTOM OF THE JAR.WHEN THEY FALL,THEY MAY TAKE A BLOB OF OIL DOWN TOO.YOU MIGHT NOTICE THAT THE OIL BLOBS SITTING AT THE BOTTOM OF THE LAYER HAVE A GRAINY COATING OF SALT.THIS SALT COATING IS STUCK TO THE OIL BLOB AND ANCHORS IT DOWN.SALT DISSOLVES IN WATER,AND EVENTUALLY THE SALT COATING OF THE OIL BLOB DISAPPEARS.AT THAT POINT,THE OIL BLOBS NO LONGER WEIGHTED DOWN,AND FLOATS BACK. TRY YOUR SELF - TRY REPLACING THE SALT WITH OTHER MATERIALS LIKE SUGAR,BAKING SODA,OR DIFFERENT KINDS OF POWDER.WHAT KIND O RESULT DO YOU GET?

SCIENCE PROJECT 1

ELECTRICITY PRODUCING FROM LEMON!!! - MATERIALS - A LEMON,A PENNY OR COPPER METAL,A GALVANIZED NAIL OR ZINC METAL,COPPER WIRE,A FLASHLIGHT BULB. INSTRUCTIONS - 1.ROLL THE LEMON ON A TABLE WITH SOME GENTLE PRESSURE TO MASH UP THE INSIDE OF THE LEMON WITHOUT BREAKING IT. 2.STICK THE PENNY AND THE NAIL INTO THE LEMON,MAKING SURE THAT THEY DO NOT TOUCH. 3.AT THESE POINT,STICK OUT YOUR TONGUE AND TOUCH IT TO THE PENNY AND THE NAIL AT THE SAME TIME. 4.WITH ALLIGATOR CLIPS,ATTACH A PIECE OF COPPER WIRE TO THE PENNY AND ANOTHER PIECE OF COPPER WIRE TO THE NAIL. 5.CAREFULLY TOUCH THE BOTH WIRES TO A SMALL FLASHLIGHT BULB. NOTIFICATIONS - 1.WHEN YOU TOUCH THE YOUR TONGUE TO THE PENNY AND THE NAIL,YOU SHOULD EEL A SMALL TINGLE. 2.WHEN YOU TOUCH THE WIRES TO THE FLASHLIGHT BULB,IT SHOULD LIGHT UP!!! WHAT'S HAPPENING? - AN ELECTRIC CURRENT IS CREATED WHEN ELECTRONS FLOW FROM ONE ELECTRODE TO ANOTHER THROUGH A CONDUCTOR.IN THIS PROJECT,THE PENNY AND THE NAIL BOTH WORKS AS ELECTRODES.THE COPPER WIRE CONNECTING EVERYTHING IS A CONDUCTOR.THE LEMON ACTS TO FINISH THE CIRCUIT WHILE KEEPING THE TWO ELECTRODES APART.ACTUALLY THE JUICE INSIDE THE LEMON ACTS AS THE CONDUCTING FLUID,KNOWN AS THE ELECTROLYTE.WHEN YOU PUT THE CIRCUIT TOGETHER,YOU ACTUALLY START A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH ONE OF THE ELECTRODES LOSES ELECTRONS WHILE THE OTHER ONE GAINS ELECTRONS.THAT MAKES THE CURRENT,WHICH LIGHTS UP THE BULB. TRY YOUR SELF - YOU CAN USE OTHER FRUITS AND VEGETABLES LIKE POTATOES AND ORANGES CAUSE THEY HAVE ACIDS IN THEM.YOU CAN ALSO TRY OTHER FOODS LIKE HARD BOILED EGGS ,BREAD,OR GREEN PEPPERS.SEE IF THEY WORK.

RENAISSANCE SCIENCE

BY THE 15th CENTURY,THE IDEAS OF ANCIENT GREEKS,ALONG WITH THOSE OF THE CHURCH,HAD BECOME DOGMA(REGARDED OF TRUTH)THROUGHOUT EUROPE.DURING THE RENAISSANCE WHICH MEANS REBIRTH,PEOPLE BEGAN TO QUESTION THE DOGMA.THEY ALSO BEGAN TO EXPERIMENT IN A TRULY SCIENTIFIC FASHION.THESE NEW APPROACH TOOK NOTHING FOR GRANTED,AND USED OBSERVATION,EXPERIMENTS,AND ARGUMENT TO DEVELOP THEORIES TO EXPLAIN WHY THINGS HAPPEN.GREAT SCIENTISTS,SUCH AS GALILEO AND NEWTON,DATE FROM THIS PERIOD.EXAMPLE OF RENAISSANCE SCIENCE - SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS - THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS,SUCH AS TELESCOPE,MADE NEW OBSERVATIONS OF THE UNIVERSE POSSIBLE.MANY OF THESE OBSERVATIONS CHALLENGED THE ACCEPTED BUT UNTESTED IDEAS OF THE TIME.PHYSICALS MODELS SUCH AS THE ARMILLARY SPHERE,HELPED TO VISUALIZE AND TEST THE NEW THEORIES,WHICH NOW BEGAN TO REPLACE THE NEW IDEAS. PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA - AFTER THE PRINTING PRESS WAS INVENTED,INFLUENTIAL WORKS,SUCH AS PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA BY NEWTON(PUBLISHED IN 1687)BECAME AVAILABLE IN GREAT NUMBERS,AND HELPED SPREAD THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD.THESE BOOKS SET OUT THE LAWS OF MOTION AND NEWTONS THEORY OF GRAVITY.

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE

IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE,ANCIENT THEORIES PREVAILED ESPECIALLY ARISTOTLE'S IDEA THAT ALL PHENOMENA HAD A DIVINE CAUSE.MONKS KEPT THEIR LOVE OF LEARNING ALIVE BY COPYING ANCIENT SCIENTIFIC TEXTS.THE ISLAMIC WORLD CONSTANTLY ADDED TO THE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE BY DEVELOPING NEW IDEAS IN MATHEMATICS,ASTRONOMY,AND MEDICINE.EXAMPLE - ALCHEMY - MEDIEVAL ALCHEMISTS ,IN THEIR QUEST TO MAKE GOLD AND DISCOVER THE SECRET OF ETERNAL LIFE,DISCOVERED MUCH ABOUT THE PROPERTIES OF METALS AND OTHER SUBSTANCES.THEY DEVELOPED MANY OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT WE USE TODAY IN THE CHEMISTRY LAB. ELEMENTS - ACCORDING TO ANCIENT GREEKS FOUR DIFFERENT SHAPED TYPES OF ATOM MADE UP THE FOUR ELEMENTS-EARTH,FIRE,AIR,WATER-FROM WHICH EVERYTHING ELSE IN THE WORLD WAS MADE.THE WORD "ATOM" COMES FROM THE GREEK "ATOMEIN",MEANING "INVISIBLE".WE KNOW NOW THAT MANY KINDS OF ATOMS EXIST,AND THAT THEY CAN BE DIVIDED.

MODERN SCIENCE

BY THE END OF THE 1800s,MANY SCIENTISTS BELIEVED THAT THEIR EXISTING THEORIES CAN EXPLAIN EVERY THING IN THE WORLD.AROUND1900,SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED THAT OUR GALAXY IS JUST ONE OF MILLIONS OF SIMILAR GALAXIES THAT MAKE UP THE UNIVERSE.THESE AND MANY OTHER EVENTS CAUSED"CLASSICAL|" PHYSICS TO GIVE AWAY TO "MODERN" PHYSICS,CAUSING NEW THEORIES TO ARISE.THE BEST KNOWN THEORIES OF MODERN PHYSICS ARE THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY WHICH WAS DEVELOPED BY ALBERT EINSTEIN,THE GREATEST MIND OF THE CENTURY,AND THE QUANTUM PHYSICS.THOSE TWO THEORIES HAVE INFLUENCED THE WHOLE SCIENTIFIC WORLD.WITHOUT THOSE THEORIES WE COULD NOT HAVE BECOME SO ADVANCE IN SCIENCE TODAY.EXAMPLE OF MODERN SCIENCE - COSMOLOGY - EINSTEIN'S THEORY OF RELATIVITY AND THE INCREASING KNOWLEDGE OF THE UNIVERSE,STARTED TO GIVE POSSIBLE ANSWERS TO THE QUESTION OF HOW TIME AND SPACE ACTUALLY BEGAN. GENETICS - IN THE 1850s AND 1860s,AN AUSTRIAN MONK,GREGOR MENDEL,WORKED OUT THE BASIC LAWS OF GENETICS-THE STUDY OF INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS.IN 1953,SCIENTISTS FINALLY WORKED OUT THE STRUCTURE OF THE DNA(DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)MOLECULE,A CHEMICAL THAT GOVERNS GENETICS,AND THAT IS FOUND IN EVERY CELL OF EVERY LIVING THING. COMPUTER SCIENCE - ADVANCES IN MANY FIELDS OF STUDY,SUCH AS ELECTRONICS AND MATHEMATICS,CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ELECTRONIC COMPUTER.TODAY,NOT ONLY IS COMPUTER SCIENCE IS AN ESTABLISHED AREA OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY IN IT'S OWN RIGHT,BUT COMPUTERS ARE ESSENTIAL TOOLS FOR ALL THE SCIENTISTS. SUBATOMIC PHYSICS - IN 1897,THE ELECTRON BECAME THE FIRST KNOWN PARTICLE SMALLER THAN THE ATOM.HUNDREDS OF OTHER SUBATOMIC PARTICLES WERE DISCOVERED DURING THE COLLISIONS IN HUGE PARTICLE ACCELERATORS,SUCH DISCOVERIES ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO UNDERSTANDING WHAT MATTER IS,BECAUSE ATOMIC PARTICLES ARE IT'S BUILDING BLOCKS. MODERN MEDICINE - THE DEVELOPMENT OF X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY IS JUST ONE OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT HAS ADVANCED MODERN MEDICINE.BODY SCANNING TECHNIQUES,SUCH AS CAT(COMPUTER-AIDED TOMOGRAPHY),ALONG WITH KNOWLEDGE FROM OTHER SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES,HAVE BROUGHT ABOUT BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE BODY AND HAVE PAVED THE WAY FOR NEW TYPES OF SURGERY.

SCIENCE OF NINETEENTH CENTURY

UNDERSTANDING IN ALL THE SCIENCES- FROM THE PHYSICAL TO THE LIFE SCIENCES-DRAMATICALLY ADVANCED IN THE 19th CENTURY,THANKS TO BETTER COMMUNICATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS,AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINANCIAL REWARD.SCIENCE BECAME LESS RELIGIOUS,AND SCIENTISTS STARTED TO LOOK AT THE WORLD AND EVERYTHING IN IT AS A PART OF A HUGE MACHINE,A VIEW THAT HELPED THEM MAKE SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AND UNIFYING DISCOVERIES IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE.EXAMPLES OF NINETEENTH CENTURY SCIENCE- THEORY OF EVOLUTION-FAMOUS SCIENTIST CHARLES DARWIN WHO WAS AN ENGLISHMAN FIRST PROPOSED THAT SPECIES DEVELOP CHARACTERISTICS.HIS OBSERVATIONS LED TO THE CONCLUSION CONTROVERSIAL AT THE TIME-THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE RELATED TO THE APES AND TO THE REST OF THE LIVING WORLD. STEAM POWER-UP TO UNTIL THE 19th CENTURY THE FORCES OF NATURE SUCH AS HEAT,LIGHT,ELECTRICITY,AND MAGNETISM-WERE SEEN AS BEING COMPLETELY UNRELATED.IN FACT,HEAT IS A FORM OF MOTION,AND THE PROOF OF THIS,ALONG WITH THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETISM(MAGNETISM PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY.),LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF ENERGY DURING THE 1840s.THIS CONCEPT WAS FIRST RECOGNIZED BY THE ENGLISH PHYSICIST JAMES JOULE,WHO GAVE HIS NAME TO THE "JOULE"(UNIT OF ENERGY).

ABOUT LABORATORIES

WE OFTEN THINK OF A LABORATORY AS A ROOM FILLED WITH BOTTLES OF CHEMICALS AND DIFFERENT MACHINES.A LABORATORY CAN BE LIKE THAT,BUT ANY SPACE DEVOTED TO EXPERIMENTATION IS A LABORATORY.IN FACT,LABORATORIES HAVE BEEN SET UP IN TENTS,AIRCRAFTS,AND EVEN IN SPACE CRAFTS !!!YOU CAN ALSO BUILD A LABORATORY IN YOUR OWN ROOM,OR YOUR BASEMENT.BUT YOU HAVE TO BE CAREFUL ABOUT THE EXPERIMENTS,OR ELSE THERE MIGHT BE AN ACCIDENT.

EARLY SCIENCE

THERE WERE TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN VERY EARLY CIVILIZATIONS,BUT NO REAL SCIENCE WAS THERE.AFTER c.800 BC,PEOPLE IN WESTERN ASIA LEARNED HOW TO MAKE METAL.AND THIS LED TO A DECLINE IN THE USE OF STONE TOOLS.THE ANCIENT GREEKS WERE A VERY ADVANCE CIVILIZATION.THEY WERE PERHAPS THE FIRST TO USE REASONED ARGUMENT WHEN LOOKING AT THE NATURAL WORLD.FOR THE FIRST TIME PEOPLE DEVELOPED COMPETING THEORIES TO EXPLAIN FAMILIAR PHENOMENA.SOME OF THESE THEORIES,THOUGH UNTRUSTED AT THE TIME,ARE REMARKABLY CLOSE TO MODERN IDEAS.FOR EXAMPLE,THE ATOMIC THEORY,THE IDEA THAT ALL MATTER IS MADE UP OF TINY PARTICLES,OR ATOMS,WAS FIRST CONCEIVED BY DEMOCRITUS IN c.400 BC.

ABOUT SCIENTIFIC METHOD

SCIENTISTS TEST THEIR IDEAS VERY CAREFULLY.IF THE IDEAS PROVE TO BE WRONG,THEY DEVELOP NEW ONES AND TEST THOSE AS WELL.TO FIND OUT WHY A PARTICULAR EVENT HAPPENS,SCIENTISTS FIRST SUGGEST AN EXPLANATION CALLED HYPOTHESIS.HYPOTHESIS IS TESTED BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT SO THAT THE RESULTS EITHER SUPPORT OR REFUSE THE HYPOTHESIS.IF THE RESULTS SUPPORT THE HYPO THESIS,THE SCIENTISTS CAN THEN DEVELOP IT INTO A MORE DETAILED EXPLANATION CALLED A THEORY.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

SCIENCE IS A QUEST FOR TRUE EXPLANATIONS OF HOW THE WORLD WORKS.IN OTHER WORDS SCIENCE MEANS KNOWING THE UNKNOWN.THE PURPOSE OF SCIENCE IS TO FIND EXPLANATIONS FOR THE THINGS THAT HAPPEN IN THE WORLD AROUND US.